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Molecular Oncology, Markers, Clinical Correlates |
Departments of Urology [M. H. T. B., K. H., A. J. P., B. C. L., R. A. F., A. S. B.], Pathology and Laboratory Medicine [D. S., S. C.], Biostatistics and Human Genetics [F. J. D., Y. H., S. H.], Surgery, Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1738 [M. H. T. B., D. S., K. H., A. J. P., F. J. D., Y. H., S. H., B. C. L., S. C., A. P., R. A. F., A. S. B.]; Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Irvine, California [S-Y. L., E. S.]; and National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, Maryland [M. I. L.]
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ABSTRACT |
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 Top ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONPATIENTS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Experimental Design: Immunohistochemical analysis using a CAIX monoclonal antibody was performed on tissue microarrays constructed from paraffin-embedded specimens from patients (N = 321) treated by nephrectomy for clear cell RCC. CAIX staining was correlated with response to treatment, clinical factors, pathologic features, and survival.
Results: CAIX staining was present in 94% of clear cell RCCs. Survival tree analysis determined that a cutoff of 85% CAIX staining provided the most accurate prediction of survival. Low CAIX (
85%) staining was an independent poor prognostic factor for survival for patients with metastatic RCC, with a hazard ratio of 3.10 (P < 0.001). CAIX significantly substratified patients with metastatic disease when analyzed by T stage, Fuhrman grade, nodal involvement, and performance status (P < 0.001, = 0.001, = 0.009, = 0.005, respectively). For patients with nonmetastatic RCC and at high risk for progression, low CAIX predicted a worse outcome similar to patients with metastatic disease (P = 0.058). Overall expression of CAIX decreased with development of metastasis; as demonstrated by the lower CAIX staining levels in metastatic lesions relative to matched primary tumor specimens (P = 0.036).
Conclusions: On the basis of our data, CAIX is the most significant molecular marker described in kidney cancer to date. Decreased CAIX levels are independently associated with poor survival in advanced RCC. CAIX reflects significant changes in tumor biology, which should be used to predict clinical outcome and identify high-risk patients in need for adjuvant immunotherapy and CAIX-targeted therapies.
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INTRODUCTION |
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TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONPATIENTS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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12,000 deaths in the United States in 2001 (1)
. Clear cell carcinoma was the predominant subtype comprising up to 85% of RCCs. One-third of patients diagnosed with kidney cancer have evidence of metastatic disease at the time of diagnosis and up to half of those treated for localized disease eventually relapse (2)
. The natural history of RCC is complex and is influenced by factors other than stage (3)
. Patient and tumor-related factors have been proposed as prognostic factors (4, 5, 6, 7)
. Therefore, understanding how the complex interactions between multiple prognostic factors contribute to the clinical behavior of RCC is essential for patient assessment, outcome prediction, and therapy planning. CAIX protein, a member of the carbonic anhydrase family, is thought to play a role in the regulation of cell proliferation in response to hypoxic conditions and may be involved in oncogenesis and tumor progression (8, 9, 10) . Previous studies using a monoclonal antibody against CAIX have shown that CAIX is induced constitutively in certain tumor types but is absent in most normal tissues with the exception of epithelial cells of the gastric mucosa (10, 11, 12, 13) . Furthermore, previous immunobiochemical studies of malignant and benign renal tissues revealed that CAIX was also highly expressed in RCC, suggesting that CAIX expression may be a useful diagnostic biomarker (14 , 15) . Clinical tumor targeting studies by i.v. injection with a monoclonal antibody to CAIX have shown localization to RCC tumors in a mouse tumor model (16) and are being applied in clinical trials to treat metastatic RCC (17, 18, 19) . However, the relationship between CAIX expression and RCC survivorship is unknown.
To investigate the importance and clinical significance of CAIX expression, we used tissue microarrays (20) for high-throughput molecular profiling of RCC tumor specimens based on their CAIX expression. Furthermore, UCLA has a RCC database with 1200 patients containing >263 clinical variables for each patient. We examined the clinical information from this data resource to evaluate the association of CAIX expression with clinical outcome.
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PATIENTS AND METHODS |
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TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONPATIENTS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Stage was determined according to the 1997 Union Internationale Contre le Cancer tumor-node-metastasis classification of malignant tumors (21) . T, N, and M stages were determined by clinical and/or pathologic data. ECOG PS and metastatic status was determined at initial presentation (22) .
Fifteen patients had concurrent resection of a metastatic lesion at the time of nephrectomy for the primary tumor. Histopathological evaluation confirmed that the metastatic lesion arose from the same histological type as the primary kidney tumor.
Tissue Array Construction.
Archival tumor specimens from our cohort of 321 patients and 15 metastatic lesions were obtained from the Department of Pathology at the UCLA Medical Center. All tumors were of the clear cell subtype according to Union Internationale Contre le Cancer guidelines and were staged according to the 1997 tumor-node-metastasis classification and graded according to the Fuhrman grading scheme by a single pathologist (D. S.; Refs. 21
, 23
). Three core tissue biopsies, 0.6 mm in diameter, were taken from selected morphologically representative regions of each paraffin-embedded renal or metastatic tumor and precisely arrayed using a custom-built instrument as described previously (20)
. An additional core tissue biopsy was taken from a morphologically normal-appearing region of each tumor. Sections of 4-µm thickness of each tissue array block were transferred to glass slides using the paraffin sectioning aid system (adhesive coated slides PSA-CS4x, adhesive tape, UV lamp; Instrumedics Inc., Hackensack, NJ) to support the cohesion of 0.6-mm array elements. Quality control was assessed on each block by H&E staining after every five consecutive sections to confirm the grade and histological type of each tissue core spot.
Immunohistochemistry.
The mouse monoclonal antibody (M75) used to detect the CAIX protein has been described previously (11
, 24)
. Immunohistochemical staining of tissue sections with anti-CAIX antibody was done using a peroxidase technique with antigen retrieval using heat treatment, as previously described using the Dako staining systems (Dako Corporation, Carpenteria, CA; Ref. 24
). The CAIX primary antibody was used at a 1:10,000 dilution. Semiquantitative assessment of the antibody staining was performed by a single pathologist (D. S.) blinded to the clinicopathological variables. Staining intensity was based on a 4-point scale from 0 to 3. The extent of staining was recorded as a percentage of the target tissue sample that had positive CAIX expression. Each spot was scored based on the staining intensity, the percentage of positive cells, and the percentage staining at maximal staining intensity. There were three spots/patient specimen. The overall score used for subsequent statistical analysis was the pooled mean from three spots of the same tumor. A score of zero was given to tissue spots that had no evidence of specific immunostaining.
Statistical Analysis.
The primary outcome of interest was DSS from the time of nephrectomy to demise or to last follow-up. We used the default settings of the recursive partitioning function in S-Plus (Insightful Corp.) statistical analysis software for survival tree analysis to find appropriate cut-offs for classifying patients according to amount of CAIX expression.4
The Kaplan-Meier method was used to estimate DSS (25)
; log-rank analysis was applied to test the difference between stratified survival functions. The Cox proportional hazards model (26)
was used to test the statistical independence and significance of CAIX expression in predicting the risk of patient death based on a variety of potential prognostic factors (27)
. Logistic regression was used to quantify the area under the ROC. The binomial test was used to determine statistical significance of CAIX expression in the primary tumor compared with the metastasis. All Ps were two sided, and P < 0.05 was considered significant. Statistical analyses were performed, and graphs were constructed using Stata statistical analysis software version 7.0 (Stata Corp, College Station, TX).
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RESULTS |
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TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONPATIENTS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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. Among these patients, the median age was 61 years, the median tumor size was 7 cm and 46% had metastatic disease at the time of presentation. The median follow-up time of all patients who died of a cancer-related death was 14 months (range, 1.3–101 months) and for all survivors was 45 months (range, 0.3–117 months).
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. The staining intensity staining was strong with minimal variation. Tissue core biopsies taken from a morphologically normal-appearing region of each tumor specimen were uniformly negative for CAIX whereas tumor regions predominantly stained intensely.
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85% were considered low CAIX staining (Fig. 1A)
. Only 4.7% (N = 15) of patients in our cohort had staining percentages within the range of 80–90% (Fig. 1B)
. Most of the patients (N = 255, 79%) had >85% CAIX staining, whereas 21% (N = 66) had 85% CAIX staining. Survival of patients with CAIX-negative staining (0%) did not differ statistically from patients with low (85%) CAIX staining (data not shown). For patients with metastatic RCC, Kaplan-Meier estimated DSS showed that high CAIX was associated with a median survival of 24.8 months, whereas low CAIX had a median survival of only 5.5 months (P < 0.001; Fig. 1C
).
For patients diagnosed with metastatic disease at the time of initial presentation, CAIX expression provided important additional prognostic information when DSS was analyzed according to T stage and Fuhrman’s grade. Table 2
lists the median survivals for patients with metastatic disease when stratified according to high or low CAIX staining. High CAIX expression predicted a better prognosis for both low and high T stage as shown by Kaplan-Meier estimates of DSS (Fig. 2, A and B)
. Interestingly, patients with both low T stage and low CAIX staining had a significantly worse median survival time (12.2 months) than patients with both high T stage and high CAIX staining (16.7 months; P = 0.032). Similarly, high CAIX staining demonstrated more favorable survival for both low- and high-grade tumors (Fig. 2, C and D)
. The survival time for low-grade tumors with low CAIX expression was not statistically different from the survival time for high-grade tumors with high CAIX (median, 15.2 versus 16.3 months; P = 0.119). No statistically significant associations were found between the level of CAIX expression and either T stage or grade for patients with metastatic disease.
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. For patients with no nodal disease, high CAIX staining predicted better survival than low CAIX staining, median 27.3 months versus 12.8 months, respectively (P < 0.001; Fig. 3A
). Similarly, in patients with nodal disease (N = 1 or N = 2), high CAIX predicted a median survival of 12.5 versus 2.9 months for low CAIX (P = 0.009; Fig. 3B
). Interestingly, median survival for patients with both node-negative disease and low CAIX expression was not statistically different from the survival of patients with both node-positive disease and high CAIX expression, 12.8 versus 12.5 months, respectively (P = 0.103; Table 2
). Higher CAIX expression also predicted a more favorable survival for patients with ECOG PS = 0 with median survival of 44.2 months for high CAIX versus 9.8 months for low CAIX (P = 0.005; Fig. 3C
). For patients with ECOG PS > 0, high CAIX staining predicted a median survival of 21.2 versus 4.8 months with low CAIX (P < 0.001; Fig. 3D
).
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). However, using the Cox proportional hazards model, we identified a subset of patients with localized RCC and no nodal or metastatic involvement that could be additionally stratified by CAIX. Patients with T stage 
3 and grade 2 were categorized as high risk for progression with a median survival of 28.5 months compared with low-risk patients (T stage 2 and grade = 1) who had a median survival of over 106 months (P < 0.001; Fig. 4A
). There were no missing data for T stage or grade for patients with localized RCC. The high-risk patients were statistically distinct from the patients with metastatic disease who had a median survival of 16.7 months (P = 0.021; Fig. 4A
). Stratification of high-risk patients according to high or low CAIX staining approached statistical significance (P = 0.058; Fig. 4B
) and was limited by small sample size (N = 47). High-risk patients with high CAIX (N = 41) had a median survival of 30.3 months. However, high-risk patients with low CAIX staining (N = 6) had a worse prognosis with a median survival time of only 10 months and had a similar clinical outcome as patients with metastatic disease (16 months median survival). For low-risk nonmetastatic patients, CAIX status did not provide prognostic information. CAIX status also did not predict relapses (N = 38) in patients with nonmetastatic disease, perhaps because of small sample size.
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. There were no apparent relationships between CAIX and other prognostic variables such as age, gender, and tumor size. In univariate analysis, CAIX status for high-risk nonmetastatic patients approached statistical significance (P = 0.068) with hazard ratio of 2.53.
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. Low CAIX staining in metastatic RCC was found to be independently associated with death from RCC, with a hazard ratio of 3.10 (P < 0.001; 95% CI, 1.99–4.83). The addition of CAIX status to a logistic regression model consisting of T stage, grade, nodal status, and ECOG PS for metastatic disease increased the area under an ROC curve from 0.66 to 0.76 indicating improved prediction of survival. The time period used to calculate the ROC curve was 36 months. Furthermore, we censored data for patients with >36 months follow-up and for patients who were alive but lost to follow-up. For the entire cohort of patients, 62% of patients with metastatic disease died from RCC by 36 months. The area under the ROC curve did not change when CAIX status was included for nonmetastatic disease.
Relationship between CAIX Expression in Primary Tumor and Metastatic Lesion.
To determine the effect on CAIX expression when a tumor metastasizes, the level of CAIX expression in the metastatic lesion and the primary tumor were compared. Fifteen patients had resection of a metastatic lesion (9 lymph nodes, 2 liver, 1 lung, 1 adrenal, 1 colon, and 1 chest wall) at the time of nephrectomy for RCC. The tumor specimens were compared based on the percentage staining at maximal intensity. CAIX expression appeared to be less in the metastatic lesion (3 of 13) compared with the primary tumor (Fig. 5)
. CAIX expression in both the primary tumor and metastasis was absent in 1 patient and equal in another. Overall, CAIX staining appeared greater in the primary tumor than in the metastatic lesion (P = 0.036; binomial test).
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DISCUSSION |
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TopABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONPATIENTS AND METHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Previous immunohistochemical investigations (24) have suggested that CAIX is a potential diagnostic biomarker for cervical neoplasms. An immunohistochemical study of RCC (15) also reported that CAIX was expressed in all examined RCCs, including granular, spindle, and papillary carcinomas, but not in those consisting of chromophobe histology or in benign renal lesions, including oncocytomas. Yet another study of 187 RCC demonstrated CAIX expression in 87% of tumors by immunohistochemistry (14) . Our study of 321 primary clear cell RCC tumors confirmed the high specificity of CAIX staining with 94% positive staining in clear cell carcinomas in the kidney. Other studies have shown that CAIX detection by reverse transcription-PCR assays in tumor specimens have a high correlation with immunohistochemistry (13 , 14) .
Targeted therapies directed at CAIX are being developed to exploit the exclusivity of CAIX expression in RCC for the treatment of metastatic disease. Early Phase I and II clinical trials are addressing the feasibility of radioimmunotherapy using a monoclonal antibody against CAIX coupled to a radioisotope and have shown only minor therapeutic responses for patients with metastatic RCC (16, 17, 18, 19) . Other therapy modalities target the immunogenicity of CAIX as a RCC tumor antigen (30) by developing tumor-cell vaccines and dendritic cell vaccines (31 , 32) . Yet another targeted approach would be to inhibit CAIX activity with chemical inhibitors. A recent study showed that a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, acetazolamide, was able to inhibit the invasive capacity of renal cancer cells in vitro (33) . Because CAIX is a cell surface protein unlike intracellular carbonic anhydrase isoenzymes, the design of specific chemical inhibitors of CAIX that are cell impermeable may demonstrate higher selectivity and less toxicity for suppressing renal cancer invasion.
The molecular role of CAIX in tumorigenesis is currently being elucidated, and RCC provides a unique model to study the role of hypoxia in solid tumor oncogenesis and progression. Constitutive expression of CAIX as a result of von Hippel-Lindau protein mutations (34) has been described for RCC. However, recent studies now indicate that expression of CAIX is regulated by the hypoxia-inducible factor 1 transcriptional complex that mediates expression of a number of genes in response to hypoxic conditions (35) . Furthermore, higher CAIX expression has been seen in perinecrotic regions of several tumor types (10 , 36) . It has been postulated that cell surface carbonic anhydrases regulate acid-base balance to optimize conditions in the tumor invasiveness (10) . Acidification of the extracellular matrix is known to induce expression of angiogenic factors (37) and may inhibit cellular immunity (38) , which additionally promotes tumor aggressiveness. In addition, there is some evidence for the association of CAIX with loss of contact inhibition and anchorage dependence of cancer cells (33) .
We found that low CAIX expression was a predictor of worse survival in patients with advanced RCC. The relationship between low CAIX expression and poor prognosis has been shown in studies with cervical carcinoma (39) , colorectal carcinoma (40) , and esophageal cancer (41) . In contrast, other studies have found that increased CAIX expression correlated with worse survival in cervical carcinoma (42) , lung cancer (38) , and breast cancer (38) . The reasons for these differences are unclear but may be related to whether CAIX expression reflects tumor progression or directly influences tumor behavior. Furthermore, in our study, low CAIX status identified a subset of patients with high-risk localized RCC who had a clinical outcome similar to patients with metastatic disease. This group of patients would be excellent candidates for adjuvant immunotherapy trials.
Survival tree analysis used a method of recursive partitioning to define the 85% threshold for high and low CAIX staining that maximized the survival distributions between potential groups (43) . The subsequent covariates were used in a Cox regression to obtain Ps. Similar statistical results were found when the CAIX threshold was lowered to 0% (e.g., positive or negative CAIX expression, P = 0.008; data not shown), but this did not maximize the survival distributions. Furthermore, the range of 0–85% for the low CAIX group reflected a homogeneous population that was not able to be additionally stratified by smaller ranges (data not shown). The 15 cases within the range of 80–90%, which were not reliably separated into by the 85% cutoff, constituted only 4.7% of our cohort of 321 patients, whereas the remaining 95.3% of our population could be discerned by the 85% cutoff. External validation of CAIX staining levels by other investigators will be important to arrive at a standardized cutoff value for application to patient care.
Our findings show that decreased CAIX expression occurs in tumors with the highest malignant potential. This is unlikely to be explained by the loss of differentiation because there was no correlation with Fuhrman grade. Furthermore, the overall expression of CAIX appears to decrease with development of metastases; the level of CAIX is less in the metastatic lesion than in the parental primary tumor (Fig. 5)
. This suggests that CAIX may play a functional role in tumor progression. We hypothesize that in the earlier stages of tumor progression, noxious conditions such as hypoxia or ischemia induce CAIX expression as an adaptation to confer proliferation advantage for tumor growth and spread; however, when this malignant potential is attained in the later stages of tumor growth, continued CAIX expression is no longer a requirement. Our analysis does not preclude the alternative hypothesis that the cumulative effects of genetic lesions involved in cancer progression could alter the pathways of hypoxia response (44)
and therefore affect CAIX expression. Additional studies will be needed to determine whether genetic changes underlie differences in CAIX expression in the primary tumors and in metastatic lesions.
Using a Cox proportional multivariate analysis with established prognostic variables, CAIX status demonstrated independent prognostic significance for metastatic RCC. Including CAIX status with prognostic factors such as T stage, grade, and ECOG PS for patients with metastatic RCC demonstrated an increase of the area under the ROC curve from 0.66 to 0.76, indicating improved prediction of survival. For patients with localized RCC, the addition of CAIX status to the regression model did not change the area under the ROC curve, perhaps because of small sample size. Additional clinical validation and standardization will be necessary for CAIX status to be used directly for patient management.
RCC belongs to a small group of tumor types that have been shown to respond to biological immune therapy. Although the responses to systemic cytokine therapy for metastatic RCC have been promising, the overall results have been inadequate perhaps because limited activity in some patients and substantial toxicity in others. Therefore, careful patient selection and stratification to various types of adjuvant immunotherapies may delineate those patients most likely to respond to treatment. Preliminary data from our cohort of patients suggested a relationship between CAIX and immunotherapy response that could have implications for clinical-trial assignment and targeted therapies. IL-2-based immunotherapy was administered to 86 patients for metastatic disease. When stratified according to CAIX status, 73 (84%) patients had high CAIX staining and 14 (16%) had low CAIX (Table 1)
. All complete responses to IL-2 immunotherapy (8%) included patients within the high CAIX staining group. Furthermore, overall response rate to IL-2 was greater in the group with high CAIX (27%) than in the group with low CAIX (14%). This finding could be exploited in the design of clinical trials of IL-2-based therapy and other biological response modifiers for RCC by stratifying patients based on CAIX status. Similarly, patient recruitment for targeted therapies based on monoclonal antibodies to CAIX (18)
or immunotherapy with CAIX-based RCC vaccines (32)
should also consider stratification based on CAIX staining. We also found a subset of patients with high-risk localized RCC and low CAIX status that behave clinically similar to patients with metastatic disease. This may indicate the presence of micrometastasis and that adjuvant immunotherapy may be of benefit for this group of patients. Overall, given that nephrectomy for known metastatic disease has been demonstrated to be helpful in prospective trials (45)
, determining a patient’s CAIX status by immunohistochemistry could easily be incorporated into the selection and design of treatment regimens.
In conclusion, our investigation of CAIX expression in a large number of RCC demonstrates that CAIX expression is highly associated with survivorship for kidney cancer. Low CAIX expression predicts a worse outcome for patients with locally advanced RCC and is an independent predictor of poor survival in patients with metastatic RCC. CAIX status may potentially aid in the selection of patients who might benefit from IL-2 or CAIX-targeted therapies. Furthermore, patients with high-risk localized RCC and low CAIX may be potential candidates for adjuvant immunotherapy. Our observations with CAIX demonstrate that the integration of molecular markers with established prognostic factors will result in more accurate prognosis and will direct novel therapies to improve the survival of patients with metastatic RCC.
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FOOTNOTES |
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1 Both authors contributed equally to this work. 
2 To whom requests for reprints should be addressed, at University of California School of Medicine, Department of Urology, 10833 Le Conte Avenue, Room 66-118 CHS, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1738. Phone: (310) 206-1434; Fax: (310) 206-5343; E-mail: Abelldegrun{at}mednet.ucla.edu
3 The abbreviations used are: RCC, renal cell carcinoma; CAIX, carbonic anhydrase IX; UCLA, University of California Los Angeles; IL-2, interleukin 2; ECOG PS, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status; DSS, disease-specific survival; ROC, receiver-operator curve; 95% CI, 95% confidence interval.
4 Y. Huang and S. Horvath. Analyzing tissue microarray data with classification and survival trees. UCLA Biostatistics, 2003, in preparation.
Received 6/18/02; revised 10/ 8/02; accepted 10/11/02.
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J. S. Lam, A. Breda, A. S. Belldegrun, and R. A. Figlin Evolving Principles of Surgical Management and Prognostic Factors for Outcome in Renal Cell Carcinoma J. Clin. Oncol., December 10, 2006; 24(35): 5565 - 5575. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Parton, M. Gore, and T. Eisen Role of Cytokine Therapy in 2006 and Beyond for Metastatic Renal Cell Cancer J. Clin. Oncol., December 10, 2006; 24(35): 5584 - 5592. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. A. Varker, S. V. Kondadasula, M. R. Go, G. B. Lesinski, R. Ghosh-Berkebile, A. Lehman, J. P. Monk, T. Olencki, K. Kendra, and W. E. Carson III Multiparametric Flow Cytometric Analysis of Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription 5 Phosphorylation in Immune Cell Subsets In vitro and following Interleukin-2 Immunotherapy. Clin. Cancer Res., October 1, 2006; 12(19): 5850 - 5858. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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P. Schoffski, H. Dumez, P. Clement, A. Hoeben, H. Prenen, P. Wolter, S. Joniau, T. Roskams, and H. Van Poppel Emerging role of tyrosine kinase inhibitors in the treatment of advanced renal cell cancer: a review Ann. Onc., August 1, 2006; 17(8): 1185 - 1196. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. Grosch, T. J. Maier, S. Schiffmann, and G. Geisslinger Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2)-independent anticarcinogenic effects of selective COX-2 inhibitors. J Natl Cancer Inst, June 7, 2006; 98(11): 736 - 747. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. Uemura, K. Fujimoto, M. Tanaka, M. Yoshikawa, Y. Hirao, S. Uejima, K. Yoshikawa, and K. Itoh A Phase I Trial of Vaccination of CA9-Derived Peptides for HLA-A24-Positive Patients with Cytokine-Refractory Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma. Clin. Cancer Res., March 15, 2006; 12(6): 1768 - 1775. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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U. H. Frey, G. Lummen, T. Jager, K.-H. Jockel, K. W. Schmid, H. Rubben, N. Muller, W. Siffert, and A. Eisenhardt The GNAS1 T393C Polymorphism Predicts Survival in Patients with Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma Clin. Cancer Res., February 1, 2006; 12(3): 759 - 763. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. H. Brouwers, O. C. Boerman, W. J.G. Oyen, and M. B. Atkins In vivo Molecular Prediction of Carbonic Anhydrase IX-G250MN Expression on Immunotherapy Outcome in Renal Cancer Clin. Cancer Res., December 15, 2005; 11(24): 8886 - 8886. [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. T. Cohen and F. J. McGovern Renal-Cell Carcinoma N. Engl. J. Med., December 8, 2005; 353(23): 2477 - 2490. [Full Text] [PDF]
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 R. R. Raval, K. W. Lau, M. G. B. Tran, H. M. Sowter, S. J. Mandriota, J.-L. Li, C. W. Pugh, P. H. Maxwell, A. L. Harris, and P. J. Ratcliffe Contrasting Properties of Hypoxia-Inducible Factor 1 (HIF-1) and HIF-2 in von Hippel-Lindau-Associated Renal Cell Carcinoma Mol. Cell. Biol., July 1, 2005; 25(13): 5675 - 5686. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. C. Panelli, E. Wang, and F. M. Marincola The Pathway to Biomarker Discovery: Carbonic Anhydrase IX and the Prediction of Immune Responsiveness Clin. Cancer Res., May 15, 2005; 11(10): 3601 - 3603. [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Atkins, M. Regan, D. McDermott, J. Mier, E. Stanbridge, A. Youmans, P. Febbo, M. Upton, M. Lechpammer, and S. Signoretti Carbonic Anhydrase IX Expression Predicts Outcome of Interleukin 2 Therapy for Renal Cancer Clin. Cancer Res., May 15, 2005; 11(10): 3714 - 3721. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. F. McDermott, M. M. Regan, J. I. Clark, L. E. Flaherty, G. R. Weiss, T. F. Logan, J. M. Kirkwood, M. S. Gordon, J. A. Sosman, M. S. Ernstoff, et al. Randomized Phase III Trial of High-Dose Interleukin-2 Versus Subcutaneous Interleukin-2 and Interferon in Patients With Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma J. Clin. Oncol., January 1, 2005; 23(1): 133 - 141. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. J. Kim, Z. N. Rabbani, R. T. Vollmer, E.-G. Schreiber, E. Oosterwijk, M. W. Dewhirst, Z. Vujaskovic, and M. J. Kelley Carbonic Anhydrase IX in Early-Stage Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Clin. Cancer Res., December 1, 2004; 10(23): 7925 - 7933. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 E. Wang, R. Lichtenfels, J. Bukur, Y. Ngalame, M. C. Panelli, B. Seliger, and F. M. Marincola Ontogeny and Oncogenesis Balance the Transcriptional Profile of Renal Cell Cancer Cancer Res., October 15, 2004; 64(20): 7279 - 7287. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. S. Lam, A. S. Belldegrun, and R. A. Figlin Tissue Array-Based Predictions of Pathobiology, Prognosis, and Response to Treatment for Renal Cell Carcinoma Therapy Clin. Cancer Res., September 15, 2004; 10(18): 6304S - 6309S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. B. Atkins, M. Regan, and D. McDermott Update on the Role of Interleukin 2 and Other Cytokines in the Treatment of Patients with Stage IV Renal Carcinoma Clin. Cancer Res., September 15, 2004; 10(18): 6342S - 6346S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. L. Kim, D. Seligson, X. Liu, N. Janzen, M. H. T. Bui, H. Yu, T. Shi, R. A. Figlin, S. Horvath, and A. S. Belldegrun Using Protein Expressions to Predict Survival in Clear Cell Renal Carcinoma Clin. Cancer Res., August 15, 2004; 10(16): 5464 - 5471. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 B. D. Curti Renal Cell Carcinoma JAMA, July 7, 2004; 292(1): 97 - 100. [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Kaluzova, S. Kaluz, M. I. Lerman, and E. J. Stanbridge DNA Damage Is a Prerequisite for p53-Mediated Proteasomal Degradation of HIF-1{alpha} in Hypoxic Cells and Downregulation of the Hypoxia Marker Carbonic Anhydrase IX Mol. Cell. Biol., July 1, 2004; 24(13): 5757 - 5766. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Maseide, R. A. Kandel, R. S. Bell, C. N. Catton, B. O'Sullivan, J. S. Wunder, M. Pintilie, D. Hedley, and R. P. Hill Carbonic Anhydrase IX as a Marker for Poor Prognosis in Soft Tissue Sarcoma Clin. Cancer Res., July 1, 2004; 10(13): 4464 - 4471. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 G. Hopfl, O. Ogunshola, and M. Gassmann HIFs and tumors--causes and consequences Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, April 1, 2004; 286(4): R608 - R623. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. L. Wahl, T. L. Moser, and S. V. Pizzo Angiostatin and Anti-angiogenic Therapy in Human Disease Recent Prog. Horm. Res., January 1, 2004; 59(1): 73 - 104. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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 J. A. Sosman Targeting of the VHL-Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-Hypoxia-Induced Gene Pathway for Renal Cell Carcinoma Therapy J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., November 1, 2003; 14(11): 2695 - 2702. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. J. Pantuck, G. Zeng, A. S. Belldegrun, and R. A. Figlin Pathobiology, Prognosis, and Targeted Therapy for Renal Cell Carcinoma: Exploiting the Hypoxia-Induced Pathway Clin. Cancer Res., October 15, 2003; 9(13): 4641 - 4652. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Zisman, A. J. Pantuck, M. H. T. Bui, J. W. Said, R. R. Caliliw, N. Rao, P. Shintaku, F. Berger, S. S. Gambhir, and A. S. Belldegrun LABAZ1: A Metastatic Tumor Model for Renal Cell Carcinoma Expressing the Carbonic Anhydrase Type 9 Tumor Antigen Cancer Res., August 15, 2003; 63(16): 4952 - 4959. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. M. Hernandez, M. H. T. Bui, K.-r. Han, H. Mukouyama, D. G. Freitas, D. Nguyen, R. Caliliw, P. I. Shintaku, S. H. Paik, C.-L. Tso, et al. Novel Kidney Cancer Immunotherapy Based on the Granulocyte- Macrophage Colony-stimulating Factor and Carbonic Anhydrase IX Fusion Gene Clin. Cancer Res., May 1, 2003; 9(5): 1906 - 1916. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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